INDUSTRIES LARGE-SCALE AND SMALL-SCALE

II-SMALL-SCALE INDUSTRIES.

There are many small scale and cottage industries, like hand-loom-weaving, silver and gold smithy, oil crushing brick and tile making, carpentry, leather working and tanning, fibre working and blacksmithy etc., in the district. They engaged in 1956 nearly 39,000 artisans. The table given below shows various small scale industries and the approximate number of persons engaged in them:-

TABLE No. 11.

TABLE SHOWING VARIOUS SMALL-SCALE INDUSTRIES AND NUMBER OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN THEM.

TABLE No. 11-contd.

Handloom Weaving.

Among the existing cottage industries, hand-loom weaving is the most important industry engaging nearly 3,900 artisans in 1956. A majority of the artisans engaged in it does the work of weaving and the remaining persons do subsidiary processes like winding, sizing, dyeing etc.

There are about 1905 hand-loom and 75 power-loom establishments in the whole of Kolhapur district with Ichalkaranji, Kolhapur, Rendal, Vadgaon, Kagal, Kodoli, Halkarni, Nandani, Bhirewadi and Sarud as important centres. Out of the 5,921 existing looms 5,248 are automatic and 673 are throw shuttle-looms. Ichalkaranji is the biggest centre which possesses the largest number of looms. Of the total number of persons engaged in hand-loom weaving in 1957 889 are independent workers and 3,000 are engaged on daily wages. There are 1,196 master weavers [Master-weavers give yarn and other raw materials to be worked up in the homes of the workers and take back cloth after paying wages.] in the district. Of the total number of looms,. 889 artisans possessed one loom each 518 possessed two looms each; 175, three looms each; 146, four looms each; 110, five looms each; 93, six looms each; 50, seven looms each; 30, eight looms each; 20, nine looms each; 14, ten looms each; 6, eleven looms each; 8, twelve looms each; 4, thirteen looms each; 4, fourteen looms each; 6, fifteen looms each and 3, nineteen looms each- One had sixteen looms and the other had eighteen looms. There were three weavers who possessed twenty-four, forty and forty-two looms each.

Raw materials.

Yarn of different counts, dyeing and sizing materials are the main raw materials required in the industry. Yarn of different counts is being used in the production of hand-loom cloth. Approximate consumption of yarn per loom per month is as follows: -

Artificial silk is also used in the lining of a saree. Many of these weavers use paste made from jowar flour for sizing. Some of them use paste made of dried tamarind seeds for this purpose. These raw materials are obtained from Bombay by local merchants.

Tools and Equipment.

Almost all looms are automatic. There are only about 673 fly-shuttle-looms. The main equipment of a weaver consists of a loom and its accessories. The other requirements are shuttles, creel, bobbins, healds, dobbies, pirns, etc. The cost of a whole set excluding creel is about Rs. 100. The cost of a creel is about Rs. 150. The total cost of equipment and tools varies with the number of looms the artisan possesses.

Production.

Thick khaddar coating, shirting, saris of different varieties and patki or cloth for mattresses are the main products of hand-loom weaving. Of the total hand-loom production about ninety per cent, consists of saris, six per cent, dhotis and four per cent, other cloth. Weavers from the western parts of the district weave mostly thick khaddar and from other parts weave saris of different qualities and patkis. A weaver is able to weave a nine yards cotton sari in a day.

The automatic and pit-looms together produce about 6.9 million yards of cloth in the form of saris, dhoties and khans. Most of the looms are used for manufacturing dhotis, shirting, coating, khans, etc.

The cost of production of 40 pieces of saris of nine yards each using 60^s x 80^s which are mostly manufactured at Ichalkaranji (1956) is as follows: -

Cost price of each sari is about Rs. 13-1-0. It is sold at Rs. 14-0-0.

Marketing.

Weavers usually sell their products in villages. Saris of finer counts are sent to Bombay, Poona, Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum, Dharwar and Ahmednagar. Generally they sell their goods in open markets. But those who take yarn from co-operative societies for production sell their finished products through them.

Employment and labour.

Hand-loom weaving provides full-time employment and it is carried throughout the year. Males generally weave and females and children do subsidiary and preliminary processes in weaving. Weavers have less work in rainy-season, when their business is dull. They get Rs. 2-4-0 to Rs. 3-4-0 for weaving a piece of 8½ yards according to the count of yarn they use.

Finance.

A weaver usually requires Rs. 300 to 400 per hand-loom and Rs. 500 to Rs. 1,200 per power-loom for investment. They usually borrow this amount from local savkars or co-operative Societies.

Training Parties.

The two Government peripatetic schools, one for cotton weaving and the other for dyeing and printing were stationed at Ichalkaranji and Halkarni in 1950 and 1953 respectively. Twenty-four students were trained in each one of these schools in the scientific methods of hand-loom weaving, dyeing and printing during the period.

There were 36 weavers co-operative societies in the district at the end of June 1957. They had 3,466 members, Rs. 1,17,349 as share capital and Rs. 1,31,441 as reserve fund at the end of June 1955. Out of these 36 societies, the working of two societies was at a stand-still. About thirty societies were engaged in the work of distribution of yarn. Only four to five societies undertook activities relating to production. Due to slum in the yarn market, many societies incurred heavy losses, especially those which were distributing yarn only. The working of many of these societies was at a stand-still.

Brick and Tile Making an Pottery.

This industry is mostly in the hands of kumbhars. These artisans work independently in rural areas and make earthen-pots, toys, tiles and bricks. They do similar work in urban areas also. In a few cases they are employed by contractors on daily wages for manufacturing bricks and tiles. In 1956 there were about 6,000 artisans engaged in the industry. The main centres around which the industry is located are Kolhapur, Vasagade, Halkarni, Kodoli, Rashiwade, Sarud and Hupari.

Raw materials.

Suitable red-earth, half-burnt-charcoal, coal-dust, and other types of burning waste, horse-dung, etc., constitute the main raw-materials. Half-burnt-charcoal and other types of burning waste are obtained from mills and railway stations and horse-dung locally.

Tools and equipment.

The chief tools of a potter are wooden or earthen-wheels; three pieces of babul or khair wood, one being four inches long, other three inches, and the third two inches; a stone four inches long and four inches broad having a handle let in and a stick to turn the wheel, brick-kiln for baking earthen-pots, tiles and bricks and wooden-moulds of various shapes and sizes for making clay toys and bricks. The construction of the potter's wheel could be described as under. A flat piece of wood is first cut into a circular form of about eight inches in diameter and a small flat circular stone having a hollow in the middle is fixed in the centre of the piece of wood. Six thin sticks are inserted as spokes in the piece of wood which serves as the nave. Three hoops are then tied to the ends of the spokes with a thin rope and the circumference of the wheel is loaded with a mixture of clay and goat hair to make it heavy. A stout wooden-peg about nine inches long is buried in the ground. A pit is filled with water, and the wheel is placed on the peg, which rests in the hollow of the stone fixed in the nave.

Production.

These kumbhars, manufacture bricks and tiles only from November to May as open air operations are not possible during the rainy season. They manufacture bricks of two sizes namely, (1) 12" x 6" and (2) 9" x 3½". They make earthen toys and pots during the rainy season.

Cost of production of 2,50,000 bricks in 1956 was as follows: -

Process of making an earthen Pot.

Red earth is mixed with horse-dung and soaked for a given time with water for the preparation of earthen-pots. The mixture is then kneaded properly and trodden twice. It is then placed in the required quantities on the wooden nave of the potter's wheel which is turned with a stick fixed in a hole made for the purpose in the rim to get sufficient motion. The operator then gives the clay the required form with the help of a piece of wet cloth in his fingers. The pot is both enlarged and strengthened by continual handling, turning and applying fresh mud and a requisite shape is given to it. The pots are then dried and a solution of red chalk and black earth is applied to them externally. They are then polished by rubbing with strings of smooth kanjka and sometimes with kate bhorra seeds, besmeared with oil. The pots are finally baked in a kiln in the following way. At the bottom of a kiln some rice husk and cow-dung are spread and the pots are buried in regular rows below the husk and cakes which are plentifully heaped over the pottery. The kiln is set on fire in the evening The pots are taken out after the whole husk and cow-dung cakes are burnt, by about next morning. The main earthen vessels made are pots to fill water, budukulis, deras, ghagars and moghas, round pots or kundales, saucers, parals, cups or jambs, covering of pots or jhakanis, chilam or smoking pipe and mandans. These pots are sold at prices varying from annas four to Rs. 5 in accordance with the size and quality.

Two kinds of tiles are made in the district-one cylindrical and the other triangular. For the making of cylindrical tiles twelve bullock loads of clay, two head loads of horse-dung, and two head loads of kiln ashes are mixed in water and turned into thick mud. One worker prepares the mud, another gives the requisite quantity to be placed on the wheel and the third turns the wheel and makes the tiles in the shape of a hollow cylinder tapering towards one end. These cylinders are about seven to eight inches long and about three inches in diameter. While wet, two cuts are made with a piece of stone or wood on each side of the cylinder, leaving it joined together on the upper or lower end. They are then dried and baked in the kiln. These tiles were sold in 1956 at Rs. 18 to Rs. 20 per 100. Three workers make about 300 cylinders and 600 tiles in a day.

For triangular tiles 16 bullock loads of clay, three head loads of horse-dung, and three head loads kiln ashes are mixed in water and are kneaded. The mixture is then turned into flat triangular pieces of the required size and allowed to dry a little. Each piece is placed over an oblong wooden mould having its upper side convex and tapering towards the end. The mould is then drawn through the mixture leaving the tiles on the ground and they are afterwards baked.

Process of brick making.

Bricks of the sizes 12" x 6" and 9" x 3½" x 3" are manufactured in the district. Red or black earth is first sieved to free it from stones. It is then moistened after mixing it with ash. The mixture of moistened earth and ash is afterwards pounded and made into balls each large enough to make a brick. Finally from this mixture bricks are made with the help of a wooden mould and are dried and baked in kilns. The process of baking usually lasts for about a fortnight. On an average 4,000 bricks are baked in a fortnight in a kiln built on an area of 100 sq. feet. Two persons make 200 bricks per day. The brick of size 12" x 6" was sold at Rs. 100 to Rs. 110 per 1,000 and of the second size at Rs. 40 to Rs. 50 per 1,000 in 1956).

Employment and labour.

Brick and tile manufacturing is a seasonal industry. Potter's work is brisk during the fair season and dull during the rainy-season. They usually make earthen pots and toys etc. during the rains. Their women-folk help them in bring clay and mixing it with horse-dung and ashes. They also help them in the sale of their products. Earnings of both a male and a female potter are about Rs. 150 per month in the brisk season, when they manufacture bricks and tiles. In the remaining period they earn about Rs. 50 to Rs. 55 per month. The whole family busies itself in the work and generally no outside labour is employed in this operation. Their working hours are about 10 per day. Sometimes they also work on fields whenever they have no other work to do. In a city like Kolhapur they are also employed by contractors and are paid Rs. 2 to Rs. 3 per day.

Marketing.

The market for these articles is generally local. Kumbhars in rural and urban areas sell their products directly to customers. A small percentage of the products from the cities and towns is sent to neighbouring villages.

Finance.

Potters generally require a small investment of about Rs. 250 and Rs. 500 in this occupation. In villages they take an advance from customers before executing any contract for the supply of bricks or tiles. In urban areas there are some contractors who engage Kumbhars for the manufacture of bricks or tiles. They require an investment to the extent of Rs. 3,000.

Co-operatives.

There were eight potters' societies at the end of June 1957. The total number of members of these societies was 456. They had Rs. 8,302 as share capital and Rs. 25,160 as working capital. They purchased raw materials which were supplied to their members.

Leather Working.

Leather working is another important cottage industry employing nearly 3,508 artisans. Mochis or chambhars who are engaged in it, produce and repair chappals, sandals, slippers and shoes. Kolhapur city is one of the biggest centres of producing footwear, namely, chappals. This city had 61 concerns of leatherwears which employed nearly 285 persons in 1947. Besides Kolhapur, there are other centres like Vadagaon, Ichalkaranji, Gargoti and Nandani where footwears are made.

Raw materials.

The main raw materials required in leather working are tanned leather for soles, dyed and fancy leather for uppers, belts and straps etc. In addition to this, they require tacks, nails, buttons, rings and polishing materials. The fine quality of leather which is used for uppers is generally brought from Bombay or Madras by wholesalers. Heavy leather is purchased from local tanners.

Tools and Equipment.

Pair of scrapers, (rapi), iron spike (airana), ari, hasti, anvil hammers (hatodi) and wooden blocks (sachas) etc. are the tools used in leather working. An average leather shop contains a set of tools worth Rs. 125 while an ordinary independent artisan has to invest Rs. 10 to Rs. 15 in tools. In addition to this, a leather sewing machine is also required, which costs about Rs. 150 to Rs. 200. All artisans cannot afford to purchase a machine.

Production.

Footwears of different kinds like chappals, sandals or paitana, slippers, jode or shoes, both English and Indian type, are mainly produced. Some artisans also manufacture leather articles like money purses and suit cases on a small scale. One artisan is able to produce five pairs of chappals a day, and sells them at about Rs. 20.

Cost of production of four pairs of special type of chappals in 1956: -

A pair of ordinary chappal is sold at between Rs. 3 and Rs. 3-8-0. The price of a special type of Kolhapur chappal and a sandal is Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 and Rs. 7 t0 Rs. 8. A pair of shoes (English type) is sold at Rs. 8 to Rs. 15.

Marketing.

Artisans in the urban as well as rural areas sell their products in local markets and even maintain their own shops. Some leather establishments in Kolhapur city send a part of their produce to cities like Bombay and Poona through their agents.

Employment and Labour.

Leather workers in rural areas usually do not employ outside labour in this operation. But in urban areas outside labour is employed in leather establishments. In villages and towns both males and females work in this industry. In Kolhapur no female labour is employed in leather shops. An urban artisan earns about Rs. 125 per month and a rural artisan about Rs. 75. In Kolhapur these artisans are paid Re. 1 for producing a pair of chappals.

Finance.

An artisan requires about Rs. 500 as an investment to start with this occupation. These artisans are very poor, and are always in debt. They obtain capital required for investment from local savakars at high rates of interest.

Co-operatives.

There were 15 leather workers' co-operative societies at the end of June 1957. The number of members of these societies including four tanners' societies was 319. They had Rs. 15,025 as share capital, Rs. 723 as reserve fund. In 1955-56, eight societies consumed raw materials required in tanning and leather working to the extent of Rs. 75,424 and produced goods worth of Rs. 53,996. The total turnover of these societies was less in relation to the amount invested in raw material because many members sold their products directly in the market and not through the societies.

Tanning.

Tanning industry is found in almost all villages in the district. In every village there are one or two Dhor families who do this work. But the most important centres of tanning are Kolhapur, Vadgaon, Ichalkaranji and Gargoti. There were 26 tanners' establishments in Kolhapur city alone, engaging about 67 persons in the year 1950. The chamars at some places in the district also do the work of tanning in addition to their routine work of shoe-making. There are nearly 609 artisans engaged in this industry.

Raw materials.

Raw hides, lime and some chemicals like potassium dichromate constitute the main raw materials in tanning. Raw hides and skins of buffaloes, oxes, cows, goats, etc. are generally purchased from the Mahars, Mangs, and butchers in the towns. In villages and towns local hides are purchased at Rs. 12 per piece. In addition to these, raw materials like hirda or myrobalan and babul bark are also used in this process. Both are locally available. Babul bark is purchased at Rs. 6 to Rs. 7 per maund and hirda at between annas six and annas eight per pailee (four seers) and lime at between annas four and annas five per pailee (four seers).

Tools and Equipment.

Two or three lime pits (chunad), tanning pits, washing tanks (nivalan) and tools like wooden mallets (tipas), rapees (rapa), aris (ari), a scythe, ubaran, an axe and a few tubs and barrels are the main tools used in this industry. The minimum cost of a set of such equipment is put at about Rs. 250.

The cost of construction of these pits was about Rs. 600 to Rs. 700 in 1956.

Production.

A family of four members tans on an average 15 hides and keeps 15 under the process of tanning in a month. It thereby realises a gross income of about Rs. 650.

Cost of tanning 15 hides in 1956.

The average net monthly income of a tanner's family thus comes to less than Rs. 40.

Process of tanning.

The hide is macerated in lime water to separate the hair, the fat and the fleshy parts from it. After the hide is well soaked, the hair is scraped with a scraper and the fat and fleshy parts are removed with a knife or rapi. It is then washed in a running stream and soaked for nearly three days in a solution of three parts of babul bark and one part of hirda water. To tan the hide thoroughly, soaking is repeated thrice. The hide is then tied into a bag and hung up with a stronger solution of babul bark and hirda water. It is exposed to the sun and on the eighth day it is washed in a stream and dried. Thus the tanner gets a tanned hide.

By-products.

The flesh obtained from a tanned hide is on an average about 2 lbs. per piece. It is sold to local farmers who use it as manure.

Marketing.

Tanned hides which are used as sole leather are generally sent to Bombay and Poona from where there exists a large demand for them. They are also sold in the local market. Many a time these tanners are compelled to undersell their products, because they cannot afford to wait till the market prices are favourable to them.

Employment and labour.

Tanning provides full-time employment, Tanners work from morning till evening. Wet season is a slack season of this industry. Generally no outside labour if employed in it. They work with the help of their families. But at Kolhapur and Vadagaon where this industry is organised on a large scale, many artisans are employed on daily wages in the tanning concerns and they are paid Rs. 2 per tanned piece of hide. An average earning of a tanner's family working in a village is about Rs. 75 to Rs. 100 per month.

Finance.

The minimum investment required in this industry is about Rs. 100 for tools and equipment and Rs. 750 to Rs. 1,000 as working capital. Tanners usually borrow this amount at high rates of interest from local savakars.

Co-operatives.

The peripatetic tanning school was shifted to this district in September 1950. Till June 1954 it had completed three sessions-two at Kolhapur proper and one at Vadagaon. More than 20 hereditary and non-hereditary artisans and some casual students were trained in chrome-tanning, glue-manufacture and and other taning processes like pit as well as bag methods.

There were four tanners co-operative societies at the end of June 1956. The number of members of these societies including eight leather workers societies was 286. These societies consumed raw materials required in tanning and leather working to the extent of Rs. 75,424 and produced goods worth Rs. 53,996. The total turnover of these societies was less in relation to the amount invested in raw material because many members sold their products directly in the market and not through the societies.

Rope-Making.

There are vast plantations of sisal fibre in the district and it has enabled a considerable number of persons to be engaged in fibre or rope making industry. It is said that there are about 3,661 artisans engaged in it. They come from the Mang caste and rope-making is their hereditary occupation. They produce ropes of different sizes. Alte, Vadgaon, Hupari, Kadoli and Kabnur are the main centres of rope-making in the district.

Raw Materials.

Fibre and colours constitute the main raw materials in the process of rope-making. Hatkanangale, Panhala, Radhanagari and Shahuwadi talukas have vast plantations of sisal fibre which is used in rope-making. The leaves of sisal plant are retted in water for about four days and are beaten with wooden mallets to separate the fibre from the other material.

Tools and Equipment.

Tools and equipment in rope-making consist of cutters, (khurpa), knives (koyata), movers (chirana), dhopatani, pat, pillanye, phali, bail lakadi, which cost about Rs. 10 to 12.

Production.

Mangs produce ropes of different sizes and cater for local needs. They produce brooms from sisal plant leaves, and sell them at two annas each. The cost of a rope of 1½" diameter and 22 yards long is about Rs. 10 including the wages of two workers. Such kinds of ropes are sold at between Rs. 10 and Rs. 11 each. They also make ropes of small sizes and sell them at prices varying from Re. 1 to Rs. 10 each, according to the size and quality.

Process of rope making (Sisal fibre).-A quantity of fibre is taken and twisted into thin strands which are then by the same process carried to a suitable length. One person takes the long strand and the other goes to a distance of 30 to 60 feet and starts again twisting it. The twisted length is thus folded and again twisted with the help of Khalbat into rope consisting of threee to nine strands as required.

Marketing.

The market for these articles is generally local. Mangs sell their produce directly to customers, which involves a considerable waste of time due to higgling that takes place between the seller and the customer.

Employment.

Rope-making is a seasonal industry. Artisans make ropes for about eight months in a year. In the rainy season they work on fields to supplement their income. The income of a Mang family dependent on this occupation is about Rs. 35 to Rs. 40 per month.

Investment.

A very small amout of investment is required in this occupation, as expenditure on raw-materials and tools is considerably less.

Co-operatives.

One Government peripatetic school for fibre-working was stationed at a village, Talasande in Hatkanangale taluka, from June 1955. It concluded two sessions till June 1957 and trained about 30 students in fibre-working. There were five fibre and rope maker societies at the end of June 1957. These societies had 107 members, Rs. 1,895 as share capital, and Rs. 7,569 as working fund.

Silver and Gold Industry.

This is an important village industry of the district, in which Sonars are engaged. But in the urban areas and at places like Hupari, persons of different castes like Marathas, Brahmins, Jains, Muslims, Kshatriyas and Lohars are engaged in this occupation. This industry divides itself into six groups according to the nature of work performed by each of them. There are, in the first place, local shroffs or Sarafs whose business is confined mainly to the sale of gold and silver ornaments. They keep a stock of gold and silver, and are found at places like Kolhapur, Hupari and Kagal. They entrust the work of making various articles of gold and silver to a large body of local artisans. The second group contains two distinct categories of workers, (1) those who make gold ornaments, (2) those who make silver ornaments. The third group specialises fin the manufacture of gold and silver beads or goojarve which. necessitates an amount of specialization and skill. The fourth makes rolled gold ornaments. The fifth and the last group consists of miscellaneous workers who make gold and silver ornaments, and articles of various metals like copper and brass etc. In rural areas Sonars serve local customers who give them the required quantity of gold or silver in advance for making ornaments. There were about 2,500 artisans in 1956 engaged in this industry, out of whom about 1,000 followed hereditary occupation. In Kolhapur city alone the total number of establishments of Sarafs and goldsmiths was 365 in which about 982 persons were engaged in 1956.

Raw Materials.

Silver, gold and different solders etc. constitute the main raw materials in the industry.

Tools and Equipment.

The main equipment of these workers in gold and silver, bead makers and rolled gold ornament makers are anvil, hammers (hatoda), bellow (bhata) pincers (chimata), pots (kundi) and crucibles (musi), moulds (pagas), nails (salai) and other tools for ornament work. An artisan maintains two such types of sets. A small establishment' possesses tools worth about Rs. 100 and an establishment of the biggest size about Rs. 1,000. In Kolhapur, a few establishments use machinery for rolling strings of silver and for punching and also dye-presses.

Production.

Artisans working in these different sections of the industry manufacture gold and silver ornaments, like bangles, various types of bracelets, rings, strings of beads, neckwear, silver frames, gold and silver buttons, water vessels etc. In villages also these artisans manufacture the same types of ornaments. They get orders in advance along with the provision of raw material. Silver ornaments to the extent of 3½ lakhs of tolas are reported to be prepared in the district every month.

Cost of Production.

Cost of production varies with the type and nature of the article produced. But it can be said that on an average one and half annas worth labour is spent on an article of silver weighing a tola.

Process of gold and silver-bead making.-The metal, either gold or silver, is first pressed into plain thin sheets which are then cut into small square pieces. These are then cast into tiny moulds to receive semi-circular cap-like shapes. On an average over 500 such caps are produced in an hour. These caps are then properly sorted into suitable pairs which are fitted over each other and fashioned into tiny balls. They are then covered with borax powder and are, after some time, taken into a small air-tight chamber in which the artisan works. They are sufficiently heated over the steady flame of an oil lamp, and then the two caps are joined to one another which produces a bead.

Tordi or anket made of silver is another important ornament. It is made of silver thread and sheet. Very small rings made of silver thread are connected to each other to a length ranging from five inches to eleven inches as required. The chain has a breadth of about 1/10th of an inch to which silver beads are hanged from one end to the other.

Marketing.

Artisans in villages maintain small shops in their houses where they make ornaments from gold and silver on orders in advance. Artisans and Sarafs at Hupari and Kolhapur maintain regular customers. Many a time they visit big cities like Bombay and Poona for the sale of their articles.

Finance.

The artisan requires about Rs. 800 to start with the occupation on a small scale. He has to purchase tools and a little quantity of gold and silver as raw materials. A goldsmith's establishment with four or five artisans working in it requires about Rs. 5,000 as capital investment. However, artisans- Sonars-who are engaged in this industry are generally poor. They do not possess enough capital to start the occupation even on a small-scale. They have, therefore, to depend upon advance orders from customers. Sometimes they obtain advance in the form of metal from outside merchants on the condition to return to them the manufactured products. Some obtain raw materials on credit and others borrow from local savakars.

Employment and Labour.

The industry requires hard labour. Males and females and children of artisans, families work in it. The work also requires some skill and an artistic mind. At places like Hupari and Kolhapur these workers come from nearby villages and are engaged by master goldsmiths. Artisans working in both gold and silver establishments in urban areas are paid at piece-rate i.e., one and half annas to three annas for converting one tola of gold into ornament. Two artisans make ornaments weighing 25 to 30 tolas in a day. Some skilled artisans are also employed on monthly wages of Rs. 35 to Rs. 45 each. Those who make gold and silver beads are employed on contract by Karkhandars. The rate of payment varies between Rs. 2 and Rs. 4 per 1,000 beads. A skilled worker makes 100 to 200 beads per hour. The work of fitting circular caps over each other by joining requires some skill. The worker is paid at the rate of Rs. 10 per 1,000 beads. A large bulk of the artisans in this industry accept wage work. The demand for all types of work is usually more intense from October to June. Business is universally dull in the rainy season. The work of bead-making is far from pleasant. Conditions under which workers have to work affect their health and efficiency, with the result that they fall a prey to various diseases of lungs.

Co-operative Societies.

There were two metal workers' societies organised at Kolhapur and Hupari in 1956. The society at Kolhapur was organised by tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and brasssmiths. The society at Hupari was organised by silver workers. Both these societies were quite new. Their organisers were neither successful in getting bank loan nor loan from Government. These two societies had 98 members, Rs. 3,500 as share capital and Rs. 893 as working capital at the end of June 1956.

Blacksmithy.

In all important villages in the district, there are two or three Lohar families who do the work of black-smiths. They produce small iron articles like frying pans, scarpers, spoons and chhanis. They repair buckets and iron tools like knives, sickles, scythes and horse-shoes and agricultural implements like ploughs, etc. The number of artisans engaged in the industry was 2,653 in 1956. Main centres around which this industry is located are Kolhapur, Ichalkaranji, Hupari, and Rashiwade. There were some Lohars who did the work of carpenters in addition to their usual work. They repaired agricultural implements like bullock carts.

Raw materials.

Iron, tin sheets, iron bars, angles, babul wood etc. constitute the main raw materials of the Lohars. They purchase these articles in the local market.

Tools and Equipment.

Tools and equipment used by these artisans consist of one bhata, or pair of bellows, anvil, pakkads (sandasi) chinni (channi), hammers (hatoda), ghans and hangada (shingada). Shingada is a thick iron flat piece of about 18 inches in length, one end of which has a tapering round and the other end has a square with two holes. The round portion is used for preparing round rings of different sizes and other holes are used as hollows for boring holes on iron sheets. Rings of iron etc. are sized with the help of this instrument. Shingada is shared in common by three or four artisans. The total cost of the whole set excluding shingada is Rs. 250. The cost of shingada is about Rs. 200.

A big establishment in urban areas possesses a set of equipment worth about Rs. 400 while the smallest one is worth about Rs. 30 to 40.

Employment and labour.

Blacksmithy is a full-time occupation. In the urban areas the monthly income of an artisan varies from Rs. 125 to Rs. 150. In villages it is Rs. 30 to 45 per month. A worker who is employed to help the artisan is paid Rs. 1-12-0 to Rs. 2 per day.

Finance.

A small investment of Rs. 100 is required to start this occupation. It is either obtained from hereditary resources or borrowed from persons who give orders.

Co-operative societies.

There were four societies of carpenters and smiths at the end of June 1956. The total number of their members was 101. They had share capital of Rs. 4,927 and reserve funds of Rs. 147 and working capital of Rs. 27,663.

Carpentry.

Carpenters or sutars are hereditary artisans. They are found all over the district. Each village contains one or two sutar families who produce implements of agriculture, bullock carts and repair village houses. Some village sutars are carpenter-cum-backsmiths, They do the work of black smiths in addition to their usual work. They fit iron tyres on the wheels of carts. In towns they are engaged in making furniture or house building. Some artisans make handlooms, articles like small boxes etc. There are about 4,810 carpenters engaged in the industry out of whom about 2,000 are in Kolhapur city alone. Kolhapur, Ichalkaranji and Ajra are the main centres of this industry.

Raw Materials.

Wood of different kinds-teak and jungle, nails, screws and polishing material etc. are the main raw materials required in carpentry. Babul wood which is used in making parts of bullock carts is supplied by farmers or purchased locally. Good quality of teak wood is brought from Kanara forest and Bombay. Other ordinary varieties of wood are available locally.

Tools and Equipment.

Tools required are chisels (patali), saws (karwat), files (kanas), planing machines (randha), measuring foot (foot patti), rods (girmit) etc. The total cost of these tools is about Rs. 125.

Production.

Furniture like tables, chairs, agricultural implements like bullock carts, ploughs, looms and boxes are the articles generally produced. Four carpenters working for about 12 days make one cart costing about Rs. 250; the cost of wood used in it is about Rs. 125.

Cost of production.

Cost of making a chair in 1956.

Usually sutars do not get profit in producing small articles. These articles are sold, more or less, at the same price at which they are produced. The cost of a window of 4' x 2½ is about Rs. 12 including labour charges. It is sold at Rs. 12-8-0 to Rs. 13.

Marketing.

Market for these articles is generally local. These sutars or kharkhandars who own shops book orders in advance. These artisans produce and sell small articles in local markets in the rainy season when they get less work.

Employment and Labour.

It is a part time work in villages and a fill time job in towns. The monthly earnings of a sutar in urban areas vary from Rs. 100 to Rs. 125 and from Rs. 60 to Rs. 75 in rural areas. In urban areas almost all sutars are wage earners. They get Rs. 4 each per day and a helper gets Rs. 1-8-0 to Rs. 2 Per day in 1956.

Finance.

This community is very poor, as most of them are wage earners. Some of them are found to be indebted.

Co-operative Societies.

There were four societies of carpenters and smiths at the end of June 1956. The total number of their members was 101. They had share capital of Rs. 4,927, reserve funds of Rs. 147 and working capital of Rs. 27,663.

Oil Crushing.

Kolhapur district produces groundnut on a large scale. Oil crushing is, therefore, an important industry. It is done by power mills, as well as by village ghanis. But village ghanis are much larger in number and therefore press more oilseeds than mills working on power. There are about nine oil mills and 890 country ghanis. Village ghanis are mostly wooden or stone ghanis worked by a single bullock. Nearly every village has a ghani. This industry engages nearly 1,150 artisans who are mostly lingayat-telis. Oil crushing is their hereditary occupation.

Raw Materials.

Oil seeds are the main raw material required in oil crushing. Groundnuts are mainly crushed. They are purchased in local markets and are stored in sufficient quantity for the brisk season.

Tools and Equipment.

Tools and equipment required in the occupation are one ghani and one or two bullocks, according to the size of the ghani. The construction of the country ghani could be described as under: It consists of a wooden trough, which holds the seed, and a wooden cylinder about four feet high fitted right in the centre of the trough with a heavy cross beam on the top in a standing position, one end of which rests about a foot from ground. A semi-circular block of wood is attached to the lower part of the trough with a piece of wood projecting and forming a right angle with the upper beam at the end nearest to the ground. On this piece of wood a large stone is placed and communication with the upper beam is effected by means of ropes playing on a pulley, and as the ropes are tightened and the block rises the pressure of the cylinder is increased. A blind folded bullock is yoked to the upper beam. The bullock goes round the trough and by the revolving of the cylinder the seeds are crushed and formed into a mass, and by the pressure of the cylinder, oil is squeezed out and falls to the bottom of the trough, while the residum forms into a solid mass round the sides of the trough as oil cakes. The cost of a country ghani is about Rs. 250. The cost of a pair of bullocks was about Rs. 400 in 1956.

Production.

A country ghani crushes about 120 lbs. of shelled groundnut and produces about 30 lbs. oil and 85 lbs. oilcakes per day. Safflower or Kardai, nigarseed or korte or karala and hemp or ambadi are also crushed in these ghanis. Niger seeds are not largely pressed as they are sent to Bombay. Brown hemp does not yield much oil but is pressed chiefly because it yields oil cakes in large quantity. Of the total production of edible oil, 95 per cent, consists of groundnut oil and 5 per cent, other oils.

Oils from safflower, nigerseeds, groundnut, and brown hemp are used for both burning as well as for cooking. Sesame oil is used sparingly for burning and cooking but it is chiefly used by perfumers who mix it with scented oils. Mustard oil which is very rarely extracted is used in preserving pickles and as medicine.

Telis who do the work of extracting, sell their products directly to customers. Sometimes, they sell it to pedlars and merchants in surrounding areas.

Employment and labour.

These artisans work themselves and generally no outside labour is employed in this process. If at all external labourers are employed, each is paid one rupee per day. These artisans work for about eight months on ghanis in a year. In the rainy-season when the demand for edible oil is less, they work on fields to supplement their income. An artisan earns Rs. 50 per month. If he employs another person, he gets about Rs. 20 to Rs. 25 per month. He has to spend, one rupee on hired labour and Rs. 2 on bullocks per day.

Finance.

The artisan has to invest Rs. 250 for the purchase of a ghani, Rs. 400 for the purchase of bullocks and Rs. 500 to Rs. 600 for the storage of seeds. Most of them obtain oil seeds on credit on condition to return the products to the person who gives credit.

Co-operatives.

One oil-mens' co-operative society was organised at Halkarni in Gadhinglaj taluka. It had 38 members, Rs. 2,188 as share capital, Rs. 10,312 as working capital, and Rs. 28 as reserve fund, by the end of June 1956. It started its activities by introducing improved type of Nutan Ghani. During 1952-53 it made a profit of Rs. 1,492 on the sale of 279 maunds of oil. The society was granted a loan of Rs. 8,000 by the Village Industries Board.

Pohe and Churmure making.

Pohe and Churmure makers are found at Murgund, Kolhapur. Rashiwade, Walwe and Nigwe. Paddy is the main raw-material required in the industry. During days of rationing pohe and churmure makers found it difficult to-obtain sufficient quantity of paddy. Now they get paddy as much as they want. It is said that in 1956, there were about 200 artisans engaged in this occupation.

One beater (dank), a hearth (bhatti) and vessels (kadai) to boil paddy, etc. are required in this process. The whole set costs about Rs. 100.

Tools and equipment Production.

A batch of three persons is able to produce 10 seers of pohe in a day. The work of a person working on a beater is very streeous. The beater, if he is employed, is paid Re. 1 for beating four seers of paddy or for making four seers of pohe. Generally no outside labour is employed in this process. Women work near the hearth.

Process of churmure making.

After boiling, paddy is heated in an iron vessel in a mixture of sand and then dehusked into rice. The rice is further salted, heated and finally parched in three different earthen vessels for turning into churmure.

Process of pohe making.

The paddy is boiled and parched with sand and put into a stone mortor at a stage when it is slightly soft. It is then beaten with dank, a beater, which completes the process of pohe making.

Finance.

These artisans require Rs. 500 to Rs. 1,000 for stocking raw materials. Many a time they borrow this amount from local moneylenders at a rate of interest varying from nine per cent, to twelve per cent.

Marketing.

The market for pohe and churmure is generally local. These workers move about in streets in their respective villages and towns and sell their products. Some of them also maintain shops to sell their products. Pohe and churmure makers at Murgud produce pohe and churmure on a large scale and sell their produce in the Nipani market.

Co-operative Societies.

There were three churmure makers' societies at the end of June 1956. They had 97 members Rs. 3030 as share capital and Rs. 10,571 as working capital. These societies in 1956 purchased raw materials worth Rs. 52,523 and supplied to their members.

Lacquer Work Industry.

The lacquer coating industry is found only at village Patagaon in Bhudargad taluka. There were about 32 workers engaged in the occupation in 1956. They manufacture wooden cradles coated with lacquer and small household articles like buttermilk churners, small spoons and combs.

Raw Materials.

Wood of different kinds hedari, shevari, shellac and pigments constitute the main raw materials in this industry. Generally local wood is purchased for cradle-making. Sometimes wood from nearby forest is also used by paying the necessary taxes Dyes, pigments, and shellac are brought from Kolhapur.

Patasi, navalya, tasani, randha, compos, lac, zinc-powder, different-colours, polish-paper, kevada-leaves, gadas, patti (iron), kaman, are the main tools required in the process

The total production of cradles is about 60 a week. Two workers ase able to make one cradle of 2½ x 1½' x¾ size. The cost of. a cradle is Rs. 4-10-0 including labour charges of two workers. It is sold at Rs. 5.

Marketing.

These artisans sell their products at nearby places, like Nipani, Sangli and Ajra through Savkars. Sometimes they sell their products themselves.

Employment and Labour.

Lacquer working is a subsidiary occupation of carpenters. Generally no outside labour is employed in it. The average monthly income of a family engaged in this occupation is about Rs. 40 to Rs. 50. No females are working in this industry.

Finance.

These artisans require capital investment for the purchase of tools, equipment and raw-materials. In addition to this they have also to invest on articles which are produced but not sold in the rainy-reason due to lack of transport facilities. The total capital investment each artisan requires is about Rs. 300. These artisans are very poor and they obtain this amount from local money-lenders at high rates of interest.

Co-operatives.

There was one co-operative society of lacquer workers at Patagaon in 1952-53. It had 30 members, and Rs. 570 as share capital at the end of 1952-53. Government had sanctioned a loan of Rs. 2,000 to the society for the purchase of tools and implements. The society did not take advantage of it till 1952-53.

Bamboo Working.

Buruds and Korvis are the two communities engaged in this occupation. Korvis make big containers-Kanagi-for storing grains. Buruds make baskets, winnowing fans, mats, winnowing trays and chairs from split-bamboo strips. The main centres of this industry are Kolhapur, Kagal, Ichalkaranji and Vadagaon. In all about 1,090 artisans are engaged in the industry.

Raw Materials.

Bamboos as the main raw material are necessary in this craft. They are brought in cart loads from places like Bhangaon, Tarale and the region round about Amba Ghat in Konkan and also from western parts of the district. A Bamboo of medium size is sold at between six annas and ten annas. Because of the high price of bamboos many Buruds purchase mats from South Malbar and sell them in the district.

Tools and Equipment.

Tools which are necessary for making these articles consist of sickle (koyata), knife, wooden blocks, chisel etc. The cost of the whole set is between Rs. 10 to Rs. 20. Knives are said to last for about two years. The life of a sickle is between 40 to 50 years.

Production.

Baskets, sifters-gholana, grain containers-kanagi, and mats are generally produced by these artisans. A mat of 4½' x 10½' is prepared by two persons in a day. The bark of these bamboos from which a mat is made is used for making baskets. Ten baskets can be made from the bark of two bamboos.

The cost of production of a mat of 4½' x 10½' size is Rs. 3 including labour charges. It is sold at Rs. 2-8-0 to Rs. 3. On the whole an artisan who makes the mat does not lose, as he makes ten baskets from the bark of the bamboos used for making it. Each basket is sold at a price varying from six annas to eight annas.

Employment and Labour.

This work of making baskets, mats etc. is being done by Burud and Korvi families and no outside labour is employed by them in this craft. The average earning of a Burud family varies from Rs. 50 to Rs. 70 per month. In the rainy season these artisans work on fields to supplement their income.

They store 100 to 200 bamboos for working in the rainy season. They have thus to invest Rs. 75 to Rs. 200. This amount is usually borrowed.

Bidi-Making.

The district has 4.9 per cent, of the gross-cropped area under tobacco. Though it produces tobacco in abundance bidi-making in which tobacco is mainly used, is a subsidiary industry. There are some bidi karkandars at Kolhapur, Jaisingpur and Ichalkaranji. There were about 40 bidi-making concerns in Kolhapur city, but in a majority of them it was only a side-business. There were seven establishments exclusively engaged in making bidis and about 253 persons were engaged in them in 1947 in the city. The total number of persons exclusively engaged in this trade was about 450 in 1956.

Raw Materials.

Dried tembhurni, kuda, or kudchi leaves, tobacco and thread comprise the raw materials in this industry. Temburni leaves are brought from Nagpur, Gondia and Sagar. The western parts of the district use kudchi leaves which are brought from Ratnagiri district. Tobacco is purchased from local dealers who bring it from Akola and Nipani. Tobacco of inferior variety is brought from Pandharpur, Pattankudi and Guntur. Thread is purchased locally.

Tools and Equipment.

A pair of scissors and a furnace with six to eight metal trays are the tools required in this industry.

Production.

An average bidi worker produces 500 to 800 bidies per day, and a skilled worker from 1,000 to 1,500 per day.

The cost of production of 1,000 bidies comes to about Rs. 4-4-0 including charges for 30 tolas of tobacco, wages of the worker and other charges. The price of 1,000 bidies is about Rs. 5-0-0 to Rs. 6-0-0. The total production of bidies in the district is about 10 lakhs per day. Generally these artisans produce bidies of one variety. The whole of it is consumed on the district.

Process of bidi-making.

Process of bidi-making.- Temburni or kudchi leaves are soaked in water for one night to make them soft. The leaf after becoming soft is cut into a size of 2½" x 1¼". The required quantity of tobacco is put at one end of it and it is wrapped with the help of both the hands. Bundles of 25 or 50 bidies are made and put in a tray of tin sheets and are slightly heated.

Employment and labour.

Those who work exclusively in this industry are paid on piece-rate. Each worker is paid from Rs. 1-2-0 to Rs. 2 per day. Female labour is commonly employed in this industry. They are paid Rs. 1-2-0 each per day. Rainy season is a slack season when the sale of bidies is reduced.

Finance.

A majority of the bidi concerns in the district are owned by rich men. They do not find any difficulty in acquiring capital investment. An artisan with Rs. 100 as an investment is able to start this occupation on a small scale.

Co-operatives.

Efforts were made to organise co-operative societies of these artisans, but they did not prove to be successful.

Snuff Manufacturing.

Snuff manufacturing is found at two places namely Halkarni and Nandani. Snuff manufactured at Halkarni is famous in the whole district. There are in all eleven snuff manufacturers at Halkarni and four at Nandani. There are about 50 workers engaged in this industry.

Raw Materials.

Tobacco of different qualities, dura and dhas are used in the process of snuff manufacturing. It is purchased in the local market. Halkarni manufacturers consume about 21,000 lbs. air-cured tobacco in snuff manufacturing in three months. The price of tobacco varies from Rs. 40 to Rs. 60 for 31 lbs. in accordance with the quality of tobacco. The concerns at Hupari purchase raw materials on credit.

Tools and Equipment.

Mortar (danga) khalbhatta, a stone grinder (jate) and a sieve are mainly used in this process.

Production.

Halkarni centre alone produces 20,000 lbs. of snuff and the whole district about 30,000 lbs. per year.

Process of Snuff making.-A required quantity of tobacco is taken and water mixed with gul, lime and sonakhar (impure form of carbonate) is sprinkled over it. This mixture is kept in a basket till it gets a specific taste, smell and colour. It is then ground in a stone-grinder and is seived through cloth. Thus tobacco reduced to fine powder is called snuff.

Cost of production of a unit of 12 lbs.

Employment and Labour.

Workers are paid low wages in this industry. Male workers get twelve annas to one Rupee per day and female worker eight annas. These workers are asked to work over-time without any additional wages. Male workers do vastragal or sieving. Grinding work is done by women. Generally use of khalabatta is not made but when made, male workers are entrusted with this work. They work from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. with an interval of about 1½ hours. The industry is seasonal. They cannot do this work in the rainy season.

Marketing.

The snuff manufacturers move from place to place to sell their products. The famous snuff produced at Halkarni is sent to Kolhapur and other places.

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